Unregulated gambling on social media platforms exacerbates risk of problem gambling in a large national sample

Michael Sofis; Mackenzie Slade; Ari Kirshenbaum

doi:10.29329/jsomer.58

Authors

Michael Sofis Innovation Department, Advocates for Human Potential, USA
Mackenzie Slade Gaming Public Policy Consulting, USA https://orcid.org/0009-0001-0932-797X
Ari Kirshenbaum Psychology Department, Saint Michael’s College, Colchester, Vermont, USA

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.29329/jsomer.58

Keywords:

Gambling Pathology, Gambling Risk, Problem gambling, Social media betting, Social media gambling

Abstract

The burgeoning online gambling industry has begun to use social media platforms as a new way to capture the interest of clientele. Betting directly on social media platforms is an illegal act in almost all of the United States; however, no studies have assessed how the frequency of engaging in this illegal form of gambling may be predictive of problematic gambling. The objective of this survey study was to determine the prevalence of gambling on social media and its relationship to problem gambling. A representative online national sample of 17,767 U.S. adults was collected in February 2025. Of these, 12,845 (72%) reported some lifetime gambling, and they were surveyed on a variety of gambling behaviors, including their direct participation in betting on social media websites. The survey also included an assessment of problem gambling using the Short-form South Oaks Gambling Scale. Nearly 24% of lifetime gamblers reported using social media platforms to place wagers, with 14% reporting having done so in the past year. Past-year direct gambling on social media was associated with greater relative odds of problematic gambling (aOR=2.3, CI:2.0- 2.7, p<.001) when sociodemographic variables were statistically considered. There were some distinctions between various social media platforms relating to the risk of problematic gambling, with TikTok showing the greatest relative risk (aOR=2.9, CI:2.2, 3.8, p<.001). Direct gambling on social platforms is common among those who gamble and is strongly associated with the increased odds of pathological gambling. More detailed information on the risks associated with each of the various social media platforms may be helpful for policy makers and regulators as they endeavor to limit the destructive consequences of online gambling.

Author Biographies

Michael Sofis, Innovation Department, Advocates for Human Potential, USA

Michael Sofis is the Director of Innovation at Advocates for Human Potential. He is a behavioral psychologist who has authored over 30 peer-reviewed, scientific publications. Dr. Sofis completed a National Institute on Drug Abuse postdoctoral fellowship at the Center for Technology and Behavioral Health at Dartmouth College, which informed his current use of technological advancements to more rapidly and comprehensive survey specialized behavioral health populations and the general population. He has received three early career investigator awards from the National Institutes of Health, been awarded a top reviewer on the Board of Reviewers of the peer reviewed scientific journal, Psychology of Addictive Behaviors (twice), and his research has been highlighted by more than 20 news organizations, including The New York Times and The Washington Post.

Mackenzie Slade, Gaming Public Policy Consulting, USA

Mackenzie Slade is the CEO of Gaming Public Policy Consulting (GPPC) and Cannabis Public Policy Consulting (CPPC). Since 2019, Ms. Slade has built these two firms from a boutique policy consulting firm to an international consulting and research firm, helping governments make data informed

decisions on policy and programs in markets with addictive risk potential. Ms. Slade, an implementation scientist, serves as a contract director and implementation scientist consultant for contracts. In partnership with clients, she has led the development of state, local, and tribal drug regulations, and agency stand-up and market launch. She has scoped over a dozen research projects and has contributed to numerous publications on cannabis and gaming policy and cannabis-related health outcomes. Ms. Slade is a member of the National Council on Problem Gambling Recovery Professional Resource Network.

Ari Kirshenbaum, Psychology Department, Saint Michael’s College, Colchester, Vermont, USA

Ari Kirshenbaum is a senior behavioral scientist in the Department of Innovation with Advocates for Human Potential (AHP). He has over 20 years of research experience in psychopharmacology and, as a principal investigator, and has received over a million dollars of grant funding from the National Institutes of Health and the National Science Foundation for experimental work in substance dependence. He is a tenured Professor Emeritus of Saint Michael’s College and has published papers on a range of topics, including comparative psychology, behavioral economics, medical and legal ethics, neurobiology, and toxicology and domestic terrorism. He earned his Ph.D. and M.A. degrees in Psychology from the University of Montana, Missoula, Montana and held post-doctoral appointments at NASA Ames Research Center and Larner College of Medicine, at University of Vermont.

References

Allami, Y., Hodgins, D. C., Young, M., Brunelle, N., Currie, S., Dufour, M., Flores-Pajot, M.-C., & Nadeau, L. (2021). A meta-analysis of problem gambling risk factors in the general adult population. Addiction, 116(11), 2968–2977. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.15449

Clark, L., Boileau, I., & Zack, M. (2019). Neuroimaging of reward mechanisms in Gambling disorder: an integrative review. Molecular Psychiatry, 24(5), 674-693. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-018-0230-2

Frankel, A. (2022, September 7). In casino app cases against Apple, Google and Meta, judge queries 9th Circ. On immunity issue. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/legal/transactional/casino-app-cases-against-apple-google-meta-judge-queries-9th-circ-immunity-issue-2022-09-07/

Gainsbury, S. M., King, D. L., Russell, A. M. T., Delfabbro, P., Derevensky, J., & Hing, N. (2016). Exposure to and engagement with gambling marketing in social media: Reported impacts on moderate-risk and problem gamblers. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 30(2), 270–276. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000156

Guillou-Landreat, M., Gallopel-Morvan, K., Lever, D., Le Goff, D., & Le Reste, J.-Y. (2021). Gambling Marketing Strategies and the Internet: What Do We Know? A Systematic Review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.583817

James, R. J. E., & Bradley, A. (2021). The use of social media in research on gambling: a systematic review. Current Addiction Reports, 8(2), 235–245. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-021-00364-w

Kessler, R. C., Hwang, I., LaBrie, R., Petukhova, M., Sampson, N. A., Winters, K. C., & Shaffer, H. J. (2008). DSM-IV pathological gambling in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Psychological medicine, 38(9), 1351-1360. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291708002900

Linnet, J., Mouridsen, K., Peterson, E., Møller, A., Doudet, D. J., & Gjedde, A. (2012). Striatal dopamine release codes uncertainty in pathological gambling. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 204(1), 55-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2012.04.012

Lopez-Gonzalez, H., Guerrero-Solé, F., & Griffiths, M. D. (2018). A content analysis of how ‘normal’ sports betting behaviour is represented in gambling advertising. Addiction Research & Theory, 26(3), 238–247. https://doi.org/10.1080/16066359.2017.1353082

Mahalingham, T., McEvoy, P. M., & Clarke, P. J. F. (2022). Assessing the validity of self-report social media use: Evidence of no relationship with objective smartphone use. Behavior Research Methods, 54(5), 2287–2299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107567

Moravec, V., Hynek, N., Gavurova, B., Rigelsky, M., & Miovsky, M. (2025). From Clicks to Bets: How Social Media Engagement Influences Gambling Severity—Cross-Sectional Research. Inquiry: A Journal of Medical Care Organization, Provision and Financing, 62, 00469580251318162. https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580251318162

Moretta, T., Buodo, G., Santucci, V. G., Chen, S., & Potenza, M. N. (2023). Problematic social media use is statistically predicted by using social media for coping motives and by positive reinforcement processes in individuals with high COVID-19-related stress levels. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 158, 104-113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.12.036

National Survey on Drug Abuse, 2024. Key Substance Use and Mental Health Indicators in the United States. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration. Retrieved August 22, 2025, from https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/reports/rpt56287/2024-nsduh-annual-national-report.pdf

Nelson, K. G., & Oehlert, M. E. (2008). Evaluation of a Shortened South Oaks Gambling Screen in veterans with addictions. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors: Journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors, 22(2), 309–312. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-164X.22.2.309

NGAGE 2.0 (2021). (n.d.). National Council on Problem Gambling. Retrieved August 22, 2025, from https://www.ncpgambling.org/training/ngage-survey/ngage-2/

Nower, L., Volberg, R.A. & Caler, K.R. (2017). The Prevalence of Online and Land‐Based Gambling in New Jersey. Report to the New Jersey Division of Gaming Enforcement. New Brunswick, NJ: Authors. https://socialwork.rutgers.edu/sites/default/files/2022-05/final_prevalence_report_released_5.17.pdf

Rehman, D. A. (2024). Regulatory challenges in digital content moderation: Balancing freedom of expression

and public safety. Global Media and Social Sciences Research Journal, 5(02), 61–73. https://doi.org/10.71465/gmssrj32

Reith, G., & Dobbie, F. (2011). Beginning gambling: The role of social networks and environment. Addiction Research & Theory, 19(6), 483-493. DOI: 10.3109/16066359.2011.558955

Rossi, R., & Nairn, A. (2022). New Developments in Gambling Marketing: The Rise of Social Media Ads and Its Effect on Youth. Current Addiction Reports, 9(4), 385–391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-022-00457-0

Smith, M. A. (2021). Social learning and addiction. Behavioural Brain Research, 398, 112954. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112954

Statista, 2024. Time spent daily on social media U.S. by age 2024. (n.d.). Statista. Retrieved August 22, 2025, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/1484565/time-spent-social-media-us-by-age/

Strickland, J. C., & Smith, M. A. (2014). The effects of social contact on drug use: behavioral mechanisms

controlling drug intake. Experimental and clinical psychopharmacology, 22(1), 23. 10.1037/a0034669

Strong, D. R., Breen, R. B., Lesieur, H. R., & Lejuez, C. W. (2003). Using the Rasch model to evaluate the South Oaks Gambling Screen for use with nonpathological gamblers. Addictive Behaviors, 28(8), 1465–1472. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0306-4603(02)00262-9

Tran, L. T., Wardle, H., Colledge-Frisby, S., Taylor, S., Lynch, M., Rehm, J., Volberg, R., Marionneau, V., Saxena, S., Bunn, C., Farrell, M., & Degenhardt, L. (2024). The prevalence of gambling and problematic gambling: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Public Health, 9(8), e594–e613. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(24)00126-9

Ukhova, D., Marionneau, V., Nikkinen, J., & Wardle, H. (2024). Public health approaches to gambling: A global review of legislative trends. The Lancet Public Health, 9(1), e57–e67. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(23)00221-9

U.S. Census Bureau, (n.d.). 2020 Census Results. Census.Gov. Retrieved August 22, 2025, from https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census/decade/2020/2020-census-results.html

Welte, J. W., Barnes, G. M., Tidwell, M.-C. O., Hoffman, J. H., & Wieczorek, W. F. (2015). Gambling and Problem Gambling in the United States: Changes Between 1999 and 2013. Journal of Gambling Studies / Co-Sponsored by the National Council on Problem Gambling and Institute for the Study of Gambling and Commercial Gaming, 31(3), 695–715. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-014-9471-4

Zack, M., & Poulos, C. X. (2009). Parallel roles for dopamine in pathological gambling and psychostimulant

addiction. Current Drug Abuse Reviews, 2(1), 11-25. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874473710902010011